Chapter 1
The Nature of Ecology

Enrichment Links

• Ecology.com
• Environmental Literacy Council
• Envirolink Network
• Yahoo Ecology

Mistaken points made by the authors

Goal of living things

Regarding the “ultimate goal of all living organisms” (page 4). The authors state that "the ultimate goal of all living organisms is to pass their genes on to successive generations.” This statement propagates a myth. It has been my experience that the ultimate goal of an organism is to continue its living state. In general, individuals do not and, given the choice, will not sacrifice themselves for the benefit of their offspring.

It is true that adult organisms do substantially invest resources in efforts to produce offspring. But in lean times, if such expenditures mortally jeopardize the life of the adult, no such investments are made and no offspring are produced.

So, I would rephrase the statement in this way: The ultimate goal of all living organisms is to continue living.

Hypothesis

Regarding the definition of a hypothesis as an “educated guess” (page 9). Another error propagated. This statement is an oxymoron. “Educated” means “informed.” A “guess” is an opinion or estimate without sufficient information. So, the expression, “educated guess” is internally conflicted to the point that it literally makes no sense at all (informed uninformed opinion). Science cannot be done with such sloppy language.

A scientific hypothesis is an attempt to explain based on a foundation of experience and understanding. It is a proposed explanation. Not a prediction, not a guess, not an estimate. Scientific hypotheses are judged based on the results of objective tests – the ultimate authority is natural reality itself.

Student Learning Outcomes

Given the state of modern ecology, the student will be able to:

• describe the general ecological relationships between living things and their surrounding physical environment.
• define several general terms essential to the fields of modern ecology.
• enumerate and briefly describe the different sub fields of ecology

Given the discoveries of Ludwig Willdenow and Heinrich Alexander von Humboldt, the student will evaluate these discoveries in terms of the influence of the environment on the traits of living things.

Given modern scientific methodology, the student will:

• provide a thorough definition of "scientific hypothesis"
• distinguish between predictions and hypotheses
• judge when it is appropriate to state a hypothesis and when it is not
• formulate hypotheses, given scenarios
• evaluate and critique a scientific study in terms of hypothesis, experimental technique and findings
• clarify why a scientific claim is different from an argumentative proof

Study Questions / Quiz Prep. (Consult Required Reading and lecture notes for answers.)

1. In the overall scheme of things in our modern civilization, what are the interconnected roles of: 1) science; 2) technology; 3) commerce; and 4) public oversight?
2. Define “ecosystem.”
3. Define “biotic.”
4. Define “Abiotic.”
5. Define “population.”
6. Define “community.”
7. Complete the sentence. “Ecology is the study of all these relationships – “
8. Regarding plant form and climate, what interesting, common observation was independently made by Carl Ludwig Willdenow and Heinrich Alexander von Humboldt?
9. What informative theory did Thomas Malthus propose about the dynamics of natural populations?
10. The combination of what two sciences now help to explain the observations of Willdenow and Humboldt?
11. Define the following forms of ecological science:

• Ecosystem ecology
• Population ecology
• Evolutionary ecology
• Community ecology
• Physiological ecology
• Behavioral ecology
• Landscape ecology
• Conservation Ecology
• Restoration ecology
• Global ecology

12. What are the four main environmental problems facing humanity today?
13. Ecology is studied using scientific methods. Given the hypothesis that plant productivity in prairie grasslands is limited by nutrient nitrogen availability, summarize the main components of how the scientist might test this hypothesis.
14. Given that the results of experimental tests of the above hypothesis are consistent with it, those results do not “prove” the hypothesis. Why not?
15. Given uncertainties, how can scientists refine their investigations?
16. Why not do all scientific experiments in the lab?
17. Thorough scientific investigations can lead to useful understandings of complex systems. What useful intellectual tool do scientists construct based on their new understandings?
18. Reliable scientific models – why are they so beneficial?
19. What is the difference between science and art?
20. In order to investigate them, complex natural phenomena must be broken into their components which are tested separately. What’s the problem with this method?
21. Science is a search for evidence that proves our concepts: (a) correct; (b) wrong.
22. The real goal of hypothesis testing is to…
23. As an enterprise, is science “authoritarian”?

Synthesis (These are not official study questions. But you should try to answer them on your own.)
There is something odd about the situations described below. See if you can identify the problem(s).

1. A charismatic scientist appears on talk shows. He dresses nicely, talks plainly and with great confidence and conviction about his worries about global warming. You feel a connection with this friendly personality, and you feel drawn to believe his claims.
2. A scientific paper published in 1970 estimated the total number of insect species in the Amazon basin at 20,000. A recent scientific study estimated the number to be 500,000. Does this disagreement mean that scientists really have no flippin' idea?
3. A student claims that he likes science because it is based on facts and absolutes. He wants to know the truth.
4. A talk show host interviews a tropical rain forest scientist. The radio host is trying to get the scientist to predict the year and month the Jaguar will become extinct.
5. A nature-lover complains that scientists cannot fully "witness" nature because they frequently describe it as an assemblage of different components. The terms, "abiotic" and "biotic" are examples.
6. Several scientists complain to a journal that claims made in one of its published papers cannot be verified. The accused scientist responds saying the complaining scientists are politically motivated, have fewer degrees, and were educated in less prestigious universities.
7. A conservative politician complains that ecology should not be taught in public schools because it is propaganda and brain-washing.
8. "I hypothesize that it will be sunny and warm tomorrow."

The relationship between science, technology and commerce.

Ecologist at work. In order to answer interesting questions about the natural world, scientists must venture into the natural world. No comfy office or "talk-show" studio for these folks. Scientists base their opinions about the natural world on findings from studies like the one pictured above. In science, NATURAL REALITY is the authority.

An authoritarian. Authoritarians are individuals who expect absolute acceptance of and obedience to their views -- even if an authoritarian's views are contrary to evidence, facts, and natural reality. An authoritarian's power derives from his/her personality -- ego, charm, charisma and parental inheritance. For individuals in need of someone to follow, and to identify with, authoritarians offer security and a sense of belonging. Scientists focus on findings, not personality. As such, scientists do not offer emotional support for individuals who are fearful of the world around them. But technologies based on science have added enormous convenience to human lives.

Field experiment. Scientists often test their hypotheses in the natural world itself. This large field is organized into a matrix of test plots. Scientists systematically organize their work so that their results can be easily observed and evaluated.

Radio talk show host. Radio talk show personalities are entertainers who earn their salaries by building an audience of loyal listeners. Regular listeners develop a sense of loyalty to the host and often accept his/her views without question -- and viscously attack skeptics. In this sense, talk show hosts develop an authoritarian aura. This is another ego-based system in which individuals set aside rational thought in favor of nurturing their loyalties for the person they follow. Talk show hosts build their audience by appealing to base human concerns, especially resentments and hatreds toward individuals not part of the accepted group. As such, talk show hosts provide comfort by offering individuals a socially acceptable outlet for bigotry and hate. Given these emotional ties, it is hard for scientists to break through.

Carl Ludwig Willdenow. Observed that vegetation of similar climates on different continents had similar traits -- despite that they were in different taxonomic groups.	Friedrich Heinrich Alexander von Humboldt. Observed that vegetation of similar climates on different continents had similar traits -- despite that they were in different taxonomic groups.